Unit-4 Motivation and Leadership
Part-I Motivation
👉 the word Motivation derives from the Latin word “Movere”. The Latin word “Movere” means “To move”, “To drive” or “To drive forward” etc.
Motivation can be defined as stimulating, inspiring and inducing the employees to perform to their best capacity.
Motivation is a psychological term which means it cannot be forced on employees. It comes automatically from inside the employees as it is the willingness to do the work.
Joe Kelly defined Motivation as “Motivation is a process whereby needs instigate behavior directed towards the goals that can satisfy those needs.”
According to W. G. Scot, “Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to accomplish the desired goals.”
• Process of Motivation
1. Unsatisfied need. Motivation process begins when there is an unsatisfied need in a human being.
2. Tension. The presence of unsatisfied need gives him tension.
3. Drive. This tension creates an urge of drive in the human being, and he starts looking for various alternatives to satisfy the drive.
4. Search Behavior. After searching for alternatives, the human being starts behaving according to chosen option.
5. Satisfied need. After behaving in a particular manner for a long time then he evaluates that whether the need is satisfied or not.
6. Reduction of tension. After fulfilling the need the human being gets satisfied and his tension gets reduced.
• For example, if an employee develops a need to earn more, this need will make him restless, and he will start thinking how to satisfy his need. To satisfy his need he may think of working hard in organization and get promotion so he will start working hard. After some time, he will get incentives or increments or promotion which will satisfy his need.
• But motivation process does not end by satisfaction of one need. After fulfilling one need another need develops and the same process continues till needs keep emerging in human beings.
Types of Motivation
1. Achievement Motivation
2.Affiliation Motivation
3.Competence Motivation
4.Power Motivation
5.Attitude Motivation
6.Incentive Motivation
7. Fear Motivation
1. Achievement Motivation: It is the drive to pursue and attain goals. An individual with achievement motivation wishes to achieve objectives and advance up on the ladder of success. Here, accomplishment is important for its own shake and not for the rewards that accompany it. It is similar to ‘Kaizen’ approach of Japanese Management.
2. Affiliation Motivation: It is a drive to relate to people on a social basis. Persons with affiliation motivation perform work better when they are complimented for their favorable attitudes and cooperation.
3. Competence Motivation: It is the drive to be good at something, allowing the individual to perform high quality work. Competence motivated people seek job mastery, take pride in developing and using their problem-solving skills and strive to be creative when confronted with obstacles. They learn from their experience.
4. Power Motivation: It is the drive to influence people and change situations. Power motivated people wish to create an impact on their organization and are willing to take risks to do so.
5. Attitude Motivation: Attitude motivation is how people think and feel. It is their self-confidence, their belief in themselves, their attitude to life. It is how they feel about the future and how they react to the past.
6. Incentive Motivation: It is where a person or a team reaps a reward from an activity. It is “You do this, and you get that”, attitude. It is the types of awards and prizes that drive people to work a little harder.
7. Fear Motivation: Fear motivation coercion’s a person to act against will. It is instantaneous and gets the job done quickly. It is helpful in the short run.
Feature of Motivation
1. Motivation is a psychological phenomenon
2. Motivation produces goal directed behavior
3. Motivators can be positive as well as negative
4. Motivation is a complex process
5. Motivation is a dynamic and continuous process
1. Motivation is a psychological phenomenon. Motivation is an internal feeling which means it cannot be forced on employees. The internal feelings such as need, desire, aspirations etc. influence human behavior to behave in a particular manner. For example, desire to have a new house, respect and recognition etc.
2. Motivation produces goal directed behavior. Motivation induces people to behave in such a manner so that they can achieve their goal. Motivated people need no supervision or direction. He will always work in desired manner. For example, of a person has a motive to get promotion so he will work efficiently to get promotion.
3. Motivators can be positive as well as negative. To motivate employees' managers, use various motivators. Some motivators are positive, and some are negative few examples of positive motivators are promotion, increment, bonus, respect, recognition etc. if employee does not improve his performance with positive motivators, then manager uses negative motivators such as warning, issue of memo, demotion, stopping increments etc. sometimes fear of negative motivators also induces person to behave in a desired manner.
4. Motivation is a complex process. Motivation is a complex and difficult task. In order to motivate people a manager must understand various types of human need. Human needs are mental feelings which can be measured accurately. If manager measures them accurately then also every person uses different approaches to satisfy his need. Some get satisfied with monetary incentives, some with non-monetary, some with positive and some with negative motivators. So, it is not possible to make generalization in motivation.
5. Motivation is a dynamic and continuous process. Human beings are ever-changing. Human needs are unlimited and go on changing continuously. Satisfaction of one need gives rise to another so managers have to continuously perform the function of motivation.
Increase in the efficiency and productivity of employees.
Motivation ensures a high-level performance of employees.
Better co-operation from employees and cordial labor management relations.
Reduction in the rate of labor absenteeism and turnover.
Reduction in the wastages and industrial accidents.
Improvement in the morale of employees.
Quick achievement of business/corporate objectives and favorable corporate image.
Advantages to Employees or Workers:
Employees get various monetary and non-monetary facilities/benefits which provide better life and welfare to them.
Security of employment and other benefits due to cordial relations with the management.
Job attraction and job satisfaction.
Higher status and opportunities of participation in management.
Positive approach and outlook of employees towards company, management and superiors.
Reduction in the rate of labor turnover which is harmful to employees and management.
Better scope for improvement in knowledge and skills of employees.
Theories of Motivation
Theories of motivation in OB:
1.Content theories of motivation:
a) Maslow’s Need hierarchy theory,
b) Herzberg’s two-factor theory, and
c)Alderfer’s ERG theory.
2.Process theories of motivation:
a) Expectancy theory,
b) Equity theory.
1.Content theories of motivation:
a) Maslow’s Need hierarchy theory: -
The original hierarchy of needs five-stage model includes:
Maslow stated that people are motivated to achieve certain needs and that some needs take precedence over others. Our most basic need is for physical survival, and this will be the first thing that motivates our behavior. Once that level is fulfilled the next level up is what motivates us, and so on.
1. Physiological needs -
these are biological requirements for human survival, e.g., air, food, drink, shelter, clothing, warmth, sex, sleep.
If these needs are not satisfied the human body cannot function optimally.
Maslow considered physiological needs the most important as all the other needs become secondary until these needs are met.
2. Safety needs -
once an individual’s physiological needs are satisfied, the needs for security and safety become salient.
People want to experience order, predictability and control in their lives.
These needs can be fulfilled by the family and society (e.g., police, schools, business and medical care).
For example, emotional security, financial security (e.g., employment, social welfare), law and order, freedom from fear, social stability, property, health and wellbeing (e.g., safety against accidents and injury).
3. Love and belongingness needs -
after physiological and safety needs have been fulfilled, the third level of human needs is social and involves feelings of belongingness.
Belongingness refers to a human emotional need for interpersonal relationships, affiliating, connectedness, and being part of a group.
Examples of belongingness needs include friendship, intimacy, trust, and acceptance, receiving and giving affection, and love.
4. Esteem needs
are the fourth level in Maslow’s hierarchy and include self-worth, accomplishment and respect.
Maslow classified esteem needs into two categories: (I) esteem for oneself (dignity, achievement, mastery, independence) and (ii) the desire for reputation or respect from others (e.g., status, prestige).
Maslow indicated that the need for respect or reputation is most important for children and adolescents and precedes real self-esteem or dignity.
5. Self-actualization needs
are the highest level in Maslow's hierarchy, and refer to the realization of a person's potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow (1943)” a theory of human motivation “describes this level as the desire to accomplish everything that one can, to become the most that one can be.
Individuals may perceive or focus on this need very specifically.
For example, one individual may have a strong desire to become an ideal parent.
In another, the desire may be expressed economically, academically or athletically.
For others, it may be expressed creatively, in paintings, pictures, or inventions.
Hierarchy of needs summary
human beings are motivated by a hierarchy of needs.
needs are organized in a hierarchy of prepotency in which more basic needs must be more or less met (rather than all or none) prior to higher needs.
the order of needs is not rigid but instead may be flexible based on external circumstances or individual differences.
most behavior is multi-motivated, that is, simultaneously determined by more than one basic need.
Merits of Maslow’s Theory of Motivation:
Maslow theory has been widely appreciated due to following reasons:
Maslow’s theory of motivation helps the managers in understanding how to motivate the employers.
Maslow’s theory of motivation theory is very simple, common and easily understandable.
It accounts for both inter-personal and intra-personal variations in human behavior.
Maslow’s theory of motivation theory is dynamic because it presents motivation as a changing force, changing from one level of needs to the other.
Criticisms of Maslow’s Theory of Motivation:
Despite the appreciation for this theory, it has been criticized by many on the following grounds:
1. Researchers have proved that there is lack of hierarchical structure of needs as suggested by Maslow, though every individual has some ordering for his need satisfaction. Some people may be deprived of their lower-level needs but may still strive for self-actualization needs. The example of MAHATMA GANDHI is one of the most important. There are always some people to whom, the need for self-esteem is more prominent than social needs.
2. Another problem is that there is a lack of direct cause and effect relationship between need and behavior. One particular need may cause different type of behavior in different persons. On the other hand, as a particular individual behavior may be due to the result of different needs. Thus, need hierarchy is not as simple as it appears to be.
3. Need and satisfaction of needs is a psychological feeling. Sometimes even the person may not be aware about his own needs. How can the managers come to know about these needs?
4. Some people say that hierarchy of need simply does not exist. At all levels needs are present at given time. An individual motivated by self-actualization needs cannot afford to forget his food. But this criticism is solved by Maslow by saying that needs are interdependent and overlapping.
5. Another problem with Maslow’s theory of motivation is the operationalization of some of his concepts which makes it difficult for the researchers to test his theory. For instance, how does one measure self-actualization?
👉Despite its drawbacks, Maslow’s theory offers managers a good handle on understanding the motives or needs of individuals and how to motivate organizational members.
b) Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Herzberg’s two-factor theory:
called dual-factor theory of motivation.
He extended the work of Maslow and developed a scientific content theory of work motivation.
The two-factor theory (also known as Herzberg's motivation hygiene theory and dual-factor theory) states that there are certain factors in the workplace that cause job satisfaction while a separate set of factors cause dissatisfaction, all of which act independently of each other.
American psychologist Frederick Herzberg is regarded as one of the great original thinkers in management and motivational theory. Herzberg set out to determine the effect of attitude on motivation, by simply asking people to describe the times when they felt really good, and really bad, about their jobs. What he found was that people who felt good about their jobs gave very different responses from the people who felt bad.
The results from this inquiry form the basis of Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory (sometimes known as Herzberg’s “Two Factor Theory”). Published in his famous article, “One More Time: How do You Motivate Employees,” the conclusions he drew were extraordinarily influential, and still form the bedrock of good motivational practice nearly half a century later. He’s especially recognized for his two-factor theory, which hypothesized that are two different sets of factors governing job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction: “hygiene factors,” or extrinsic motivators and “motivation factors,” or intrinsic motivators.
Hygiene factors, or extrinsic motivators, tend to represent more tangible, basic needs—i.e., the kinds of needs included in the existence category of needs in the ERG theory or in the lower levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Extrinsic motivators include status, job security, salary, and fringe benefits. It’s important for managers to realize that not providing the appropriate and expected extrinsic motivators will sow dissatisfaction and decrease motivation among employees.
Motivation factors, or intrinsic motivators, tend to represent less tangible, more emotional needs—i.e., the kinds of needs identified in the “relatedness” and “growth” categories of needs in the ERG theory and in the higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Intrinsic motivators include challenging work, recognition, relationships, and growth potential. Managers need to recognize that while these needs may fall outside the more traditional scope of what a workplace ought to provide, they can be critical to strong individual and team performance.
The factor that differentiates two-factor theory from the others we’ve discussed is the role of employee expectations. According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators have an inverse relationship. That is, intrinsic motivators tend to increase motivation when they are present, while extrinsic motivators tend to reduce motivation when they are absent. This is due to employees’ expectations. Extrinsic motivators (e.g., salary, benefits) are expected, so they won’t increase motivation when they are in place, but they will cause dissatisfaction when they are missing. Intrinsic motivators (e.g., challenging work, growth potential), on the other hand, can be a source of additional motivation when they are available.
If management wants to increase employees’ job satisfaction, they should be concerned with the nature of the work itself—the opportunities it presents employees for gaining status, assuming responsibility, and achieving self-realization. If, on the other hand, management wishes to reduce dissatisfaction, then it must focus on the job environment—policies, procedures, supervision, and working conditions. To ensure a satisfied and productive workforce, managers must pay attention to both sets of job factors.
c)Alderfer’s ERG theory.
Alderfer’s ERG theory:
Clayton Alderfer extends Maslow’s theory and Herzberg’s theory. He formulated a need category model that was more in line with the existing empirical evidence. Similarly, he feels that there is value in categorizing needs and there is a basic distinction between lower and higher-order needs.
a) Existence needs: Those necessary for basic human survival roughly compared to the physiological and security needs of Maslow’s hierarchy.
b) Relatedness needs: Those involving the need to relate to others, are similar to Maslow’s hierarchy.
c) Growth needs: are analogous to Maslow’s needs for self-esteem and self-actualization
Alderfer's ERG theory suggests that there are three groups of core needs: existence (E), relatedness (R), and growth (G)—hence the acronym ERG.
These groups align with Maslow's levels of physiological needs, social needs, and self-actualization needs, respectively.
Alderfer's ERG Theory of Motivation states that individuals can be motivated by multiple levels of need at the same time, and that the level which is most important to them can change over time.
ERG Theory proposes that if a higher-level need fails to be filled then a person may regress and seek to further fill lower level needs instead.
For example, if an ambitious employee isn't provided with growth opportunities, then their motivation will be lower, and they may become frustrated.
2.Process theories of motivation:
a) Vroom’s Expectancy theory: -
The Vroom’s Expectancy theory states that employee's motivation is an outcome of how much an individual wants a reward (Valence), the assessment that the likelihood that the effort will lead to expected performance (Expectancy) and the belief that the performance will lead to reward (Instrumentality).
It's a belief that increase in effort leads to increase in performance.
For instance, if you work harder, then you'll prepare a great presentation on Global Warming.
Various factors affecting this belief are: - the available resources such as raw materials and time to get the job done. Expectancy theory has three components: expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.
Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose is to maximize pleasure and to minimize pain.
Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities.
Expectancy Theory of Motivation Advantages
Based on the fact that motivation is correlated with satisfaction.
Expectations can lead to increased motivation, even if the eventual outcome doesn’t meet expectations.
The theory emphasizes rewards, pay-offs, and goal achievement.
It champions the fact that effort should lead to increased performance, which should then lead to the achievement of the desired outcome.
Expectancy Theory of Motivation Disadvantages
Somewhat idealistic because it assumes that effort and performance will directly lead to the desired outcome.
There are other inputs that should be considered, such as education and overall capacity, rather than effort alone.
b) Adam’s Equity theory.
Adam’s Equity Theory
• Equity theory, most popularly known as equity theory of motivation, was first developed by John Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist, in 1963.
• John Stacey Adams proposed that an employee’s motivation is affected by whether the employee believes that their employment benefits/rewards are at least equal to the amount of the effort that they put into their work.
Definition of equity: -
• An individual will consider that he is treated fairly if he perceives the ratio of his inputs to his outcomes to be equivalent to those around him.
• Thus, all else being equal, it would be acceptable for a more senior colleague to receive higher compensation, since the value of his experience (and input) is higher.
• The way people base their experience with satisfaction for their job is to make comparisons with themselves to people they work with.
• If an employee notices that another person is getting more recognition and rewards for their contributions, even when both have done the same amount and quality of work, it would persuade the employee to be dissatisfied.
• This dissatisfaction would result in the employee feeling underappreciated and perhaps worthless. This is in direct contrast with the idea of equity theory, the idea is to have the rewards (outcomes) be directly related with the quality and quantity of the employees' contributions (inputs). If both employees were perhaps rewarded the same, it would help the workforce realize that the organization is fair, observant, and appreciative.
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